Grand Duchy of Lithuania
| Grand Duchy of Lithuania | ||||||||||
| Part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795) | ||||||||||
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The Grand Duchy of Lithuania at the height of its power in the 15th century, superimposed on modern borders
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| Capital | ||||||||||
| Languages | Lithuanian, Ruthenian, Polish, Latin, German (see § Languages) | |||||||||
| Religion | ||||||||||
| Government |
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| Grand Duke | ||||||||||
| • | 1236–1263 (from 1251 as King) | Mindaugas (first) | ||||||||
| • | 1764–1795 | Stanisław August Poniatowski (last) | ||||||||
| Legislature | Seimas | |||||||||
| • | Privy Council | Council of Lords | ||||||||
| History | ||||||||||
| • | Consolidation began | 1180s | ||||||||
| • | Kingdom of Lithuania | 1251–1263 | ||||||||
| • | Union of Krewo | 14 August 1385 | ||||||||
| • | Union of Lublin | 1 July 1569 | ||||||||
| • | Third Partition | 24 October 1795 | ||||||||
| Area | ||||||||||
| • | 1260 | 200,000 km2 (77,000 sq mi) | ||||||||
| • | 1430 | 930,000 km2 (360,000 sq mi) | ||||||||
| • | 1572 | 320,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi) | ||||||||
| • | 1791 | 250,000 km2 (97,000 sq mi) | ||||||||
| • | 1793 | 132,000 km2 (51,000 sq mi) | ||||||||
| Population | ||||||||||
| • | 1260 est. | 400,000 | ||||||||
| Density | 2/km2 (5/sq mi) | |||||||||
| • | 1430 est. | 2,500,000 | ||||||||
| Density | 3/km2 (7/sq mi) | |||||||||
| • | 1572 est. | 1,710,000 | ||||||||
| Density | 5/km2 (14/sq mi) | |||||||||
| • | 1791 est. | 2,500,000 | ||||||||
| Density | 10/km2 (26/sq mi) | |||||||||
| • | 1793 est. | 1,800,000 | ||||||||
| Density | 14/km2 (35/sq mi) | |||||||||
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| Today part of | ||||||||||
| 1. Unsuccessful Constitution of May 3, 1791 envisioned a unitary state whereby the Grand Duchy would be abolished. | ||||||||||
The Grand Duchy later expanded to include large portions of the former Kievan Rus' and other Slavic lands, including territory of present-day Belarus, parts of Ukraine, Poland and Russia. At its greatest extent in the 15th century, it was the largest state in Europe.[6] It was a multi-ethnic and multi-confessional state with great diversity in languages, religion, and cultural heritage.
Consolidation of the Lithuanian lands began in the late 12th century. Mindaugas, the first ruler of the Grand Duchy, was crowned as Catholic King of Lithuania in 1253. The pagan state was targeted in the religious crusade by the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian Order. The multi-ethnic and multi-confessional state emerged only at the late reign of Gediminas[7] and continued to expand under his son Algirdas.[8] Algirdas's successor Jogaila signed the Union of Krewo in 1386, bringing two major changes in the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania: conversion to Catholicism and establishment of a dynastic union between the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland.[9]
The reign of Vytautas the Great marked both the greatest territorial expansion of the Grand Duchy and the defeat of the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of Grunwald in 1410. It also marked the rise of the Lithuanian nobility. After Vytautas's death, Lithuania's relationship with the Kingdom of Poland greatly deteriorated.[10] Lithuanian noblemen, including the Radvila family (Radziwiłłs), attempted to break the personal union with Poland.[11] However, the unsuccessful Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars with the Grand Duchy of Moscow forced the union to remain intact.
Eventually, the Union of Lublin of 1569 created a new state, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In this federation, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania maintained its political distinctiveness and had separate government, laws, army, and treasury.[12] This federation was terminated by the passing of the Constitution of May 3, 1791, and since then there was supposed to be a single country – Respublica Poloniae – under one monarch and one parliament. Shortly after, the unitary character of the state was confirmed by adopting the Reciprocal Guarantee of Two Nations. The newly reformed Commonwealth was invaded by Russia in 1792 and partitioned between the neighbours, with a truncated state (principal cities being Kraków, Warsaw and Vilnius) remaining only nominally independent. After the Kościuszko Uprising, the territory was partitioned among the Russian Empire, the Kingdom of Prussia, and Austria in 1795.
Contents
Etymology
The Statutes of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania have the complete name of the state as the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia (Ruthenian: Великое князство Литовское, Руское, Жомойтское и иных).[13] The title of "grand duchy" was consistently applied to Lithuania from the 14th century onward.[14]In other languages, the grand duchy is referred to as:
- Belarusian: Вялікае Княства Літоўскае
- German: Großfürstentum Litauen
- Estonian: Leedu Suurvürstiriik
- Latin: Magnus Ducatus Lituaniae
- Latvian: Lieitija or Lietuvas Lielkņaziste
- Lithuanian: Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė
- Old literary Lithuanian: Didi Kunigystė Lietuvos
- Polish: Wielkie Księstwo Litewskie
- Russian: Великое княжество Литовское
- Ruthenian: Великое князство Литовское
- Ukrainian: Велике князiвство Литовське
History
Establishment of the state
Balts in the 12th century
The Livonian Order and Teutonic Knights, crusading military orders, were established in Riga in 1202 and in Prussia in 1226. The Christian orders posed a significant threat to pagan Baltic tribes and further galvanized the formation of the state. The peace treaty with Galicia–Volhynia of 1219 provides evidence of cooperation between Lithuanians and Samogitians. This treaty lists 21 Lithuanian dukes, including five senior Lithuanian dukes from Aukštaitija (Živinbudas, Daujotas, Vilikaila, Dausprungas and Mindaugas) and several dukes from Žemaitija. Although they had battled in the past, the Lithuanians and the Žemaičiai now faced a common enemy.[17] Likely Živinbudas had the most authority[16] and at least several dukes were from the same families.[18] The formal acknowledgment of common interests and the establishment of a hierarchy among the signatories of the treaty foreshadowed the emergence of the state.
Kingdom of Lithuania
Encouraged by Treniota, Mindaugas broke the peace with the Order, possibly reverted to pagan beliefs, and allied with Alexander Nevsky of Novgorod. He hoped to unite all Baltic tribes under the Lithuanian leadership. As military campaigns were not successful, the relationships between Mindaugas and Treniota deteriorated. Treniota, together with Daumantas of Pskov, assassinated Mindaugas and his two sons, Ruklys and Rupeikis, in 1263.[24] The state lapsed into years of internal fighting.
Rise of the Gediminids
Gediminas' Tower in Vilnius
The Gediminids dynasty ruled the Grand Duchy for over a century, and Vytenis was the first ruler from the dynasty.[26] During his reign Lithuania engaged in constant warfare with the Order, the Kingdom of Poland, and Ruthenia. Vytenis was involved in succession disputes in Poland, supporting Boleslaus II of Masovia, who was married to a Lithuanian duchess, Gaudemunda. In Ruthenia, Vytenis managed to recapture lands lost after the assassination of Mindaugas and to capture the principalities of Pinsk and Turaŭ. In the struggle against the Order, Vytenis allied with citizens of Riga; securing positions in Riga strengthened trade routes and provided a base for further military campaigns. Around 1307, Polotsk, an important trading center, was annexed by military force.[27] Vytenis also began the construction of a defensive castle network along the Neman River. Gradually this network developed into the main defensive line against the Teutonic Order.
Territorial expansion
The expansion of the state reached its height under Grand Duke Gediminas, who created a strong central government and established an empire that later spread from the Black Sea to the Baltic Sea. In 1320, most of the principalities of western Rus' were either vassalized or annexed by Lithuania. In 1321 Gediminas captured Kiev, sending Stanislav, the last Rurikid to rule Kiev, into exile. Gediminas also re-established the permanent capital of the Grand Duchy in Vilnius,[citation needed] presumably moving it from Trakai in 1323; some researchers, such as Maciej Stryjkowski,[28] claim that Navahrudak was the capital of the 13th century state.
The ruins of Kaunas Castle from the mid-14th century were restored in the late 20th century
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania managed to hold off Mongol incursions and eventually secured gains. In 1333 and 1339, Lithuanians defeated large Mongol forces attempting to regain Smolensk from the Lithuanian sphere of influence. By about 1355, the State of Moldavia had formed, and the Golden Horde did little to re-vassalize the area. In 1362 regiments of the Grand Duchy army defeated the Golden Horde at the Battle at Blue Waters.[30] In 1380 a Lithuanian army allied with Russian forces to defeat the Golden Horde in the Battle of Kulikovo, and though the rule of the Mongols did not end, their influence in the region waned thereafter. In 1387, Moldavia became a vassal of Poland and, in a broader sense, of Lithuania. By this time, Lithuania had conquered the territory of the Golden Horde all the way to the Dnieper River. In a crusade against the Golden Horde in 1398 (in an alliance with Tokhtamysh), Lithuania invaded northern Crimea and won a decisive victory. In an attempt to place Tokhtamish on the Golden Horde throne in 1399, Lithuania moved against the Horde but were defeated in the Battle of the Vorskla River, losing the steppe region.
Union with Poland
Poland and Lithuania in 1386–1434
In 1410 Vytautas commanded the forces of the Grand Duchy in the Battle of Grunwald. The battle ended in a decisive Polish-Lithuanian victory against the Teutonic Order. Vytautas backed economic development of the state and introduced many reforms. Under his rule, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania slowly became more centralized, as the governors loyal to Vytautas replaced local princes with dynastic ties to the throne. The governors were rich landowners who formed the basis for the nobility of the Grand Duchy. During Vytautas' rule, the Radziwiłł and Goštautas families started to gain influence.[citation needed]
On 8 September 1514, the allied forces of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland, under the command of Hetman Konstanty Ostrogski, fought the Battle of Orsha against the army of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, under Konyushy Ivan Chelyadnin and Kniaz Mikhail Golitsin. The battle was part of a long series of Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars conducted by Russian rulers striving to gather all the former lands of Kievan Rus' under their rule. According to Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii by Sigismund von Herberstein, the primary source for the information on the battle, the much smaller army of Poland–Lithuania (under 30,000 men) defeated the 80,000 Russian soldiers, capturing their camp and commander. The Russians lost about 30,000 men, while the losses of the Poland–Lithuania army totaled only 500. While the battle is remembered as one of the greatest Lithuanian victories, Muscovy ultimately prevailed in the war. Under the 1522 peace treaty, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania made large territorial concessions.
Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania within the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth c. 1635
Partitions and the Napoleonic period
Following the partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, most of the lands of the former Grand Duchy were directly annexed by the Russian Empire, the rest by Prussia. In 1812, just prior the French invasion of Russia, the former Grand Duchy revolted against the Russians. Soon after his arrival in Vilnius, Napoleon proclaimed the creation of a Commissary Provisional Government of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania which, in turn, renewed the Polish-Lithuanian Union.[35] The union was never formalized, however, as only half a year later Napoleon's Grande Armée was pushed out of Russia and forced to retreat further westwards. In December 1812, Vilnius was recaptured by Russian forces, bringing all plans of recreation of the Grand Duchy to an end.[35] Most of the lands of the former Grand Duchy were re-annexed by Russia. The Augustów Voivodeship (later Augustów Governorate), including the counties of Marijampolė and Kalvarija, was attached to the Kingdom of Poland, a rump state in personal union with Russia.Religion and culture
St. Anne's Church and the church of the Bernardine Monastery in Vilnius
The lands of modern-day Belarus and Ukraine, as well as local dukes (princes) in these regions, were firmly Orthodox Christian (Greek Catholic after the Union of Brest), though. While pagan beliefs in Lithuania were strong enough to survive centuries of pressure from military orders and missionaries, they did eventually succumb. A separate Eastern Orthodox metropolitan eparchy was created sometime between 1315 and 1317 by Constantinople Patriarch John XIII. Following the Galicia–Volhynia Wars which divided Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia between Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Kingdom of Poland, in 1355 the Halych metropoly was liquidated and its eparchies transferred to the metropoly of Lithuania and Volhynia.[36] In 1387, Lithuania converted to Catholicism, while most of the Ruthenian lands stayed Orthodox. At one point, though, Pope Alexander VI reprimanded the Grand Duke for keeping non-Catholics as advisers.[37] There was an effort to polarise Orthodox Christians after the Union of Brest in 1596, by which some Orthodox Christians acknowledged papal authority and Catholic catechism, but preserved their liturgy. The country also became one of the major centers of the Reformation.
In the second half of the 16th century Calvinism spread in Lithuania, supported by the families of Radziwiłł, Chodkiewicz, Sapieha, Dorohostajski and others. By the 1580s the majority of the senators from Lithuania were Calvinist or Socinian Unitarians (Jan Kiszka).
In 1579, Stephen Báthory, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, founded Vilnius University, one of the oldest universities in Northern Europe. Due to the work of the Jesuits during the Counter-Reformation the university soon developed into one of the most important scientific and cultural centers of the region and the most notable scientific center of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.[38] The work of the Jesuits as well as conversions from among the Lithuanian senatorial families turned the tide and by the 1670s Calvinism lost its former importance though it still retained some influence among the ethnically Lithuanian peasants and some middle nobility, by then thoroughly Polonized.
Languages
The Constitution of May 3 was one of the first official state documents issued in both Polish and Lithuanian language. Lithuanian language edition of the Constitution.
The Ruthenian language, also called Chancery Slavonic in its written form, was used to write laws alongside Polish, Latin and German, but use varied between regions. From the time of Vytautas, there are fewer remaining documents written in Ruthenian than there are in Latin and German, but later Ruthenian became the main language of documentation and writings, especially in eastern and southern parts of the Duchy. In the 16th century at the time of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Lithuanian lands became increasingly polonized over time and started to use the Polish language instead of the Lithuanian and Ruthenian languages. Polish officially became the chancellery language of the Lithuanian-Polish Commonwealth in 1697.[41][42][43][44]
The voivodeships with the predominant ethnic Lithuanian population, Vilnius,[citation needed] Trakai,[citation needed] and Samogitian voivodeships, remained almost wholly Lithuanian speaking, both colloquially and by ruling nobility. Ruthenian communities were also present in the extreme southern parts of Trakai voivodeship and south-eastern parts of Vilnius voivodeship. In addition to Lithuanians and Ruthenians, other important ethnic groups throughout the Grand Duchy of Lithuania were Jews and Tatars.[41]
Languages for state and academic purposes
Tribunal of Grand Duchy of Lithuania, printed in Ruthenian language, 1586
The Court used Ruthenian to correspond with Eastern countries while Latin and German were used in foreign affairs with Western countries.[44][46] During the latter part of the history of the Grand Duchy, Polish was increasingly used in State documents, especially after the Union of Lublin.[43] By 1697, Polish had largely replaced Ruthenian as the "official" language at Court,[40][44][47] although Ruthenian continued to be used on a few official documents until the second half of the 18th century.[42]
Usage of the Lithuanian language still continued at Court after the death of Vytautas and Jogaila while Grand Duke Alexander I could understand and speak Lithuanian. Zygmunt August maintained both Polish- and Lithuanian-speaking courts.[48]
From the beginning of the 16th century, and especially after a rebellion led by Michael Glinski in 1508, there were attempts by the Court to replace the usage of Ruthenian with Latin.[49] But the Ruthenian tongue had deep cultural roots. Its use by academics in areas formerly part of Rus' and even in Lithuania proper was widespread. Court Chancellor of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania Lew Sapieha, noted in the preface of the Third Statute of Lithuania (1588) that this code was to be written exclusively in Ruthenian.
And clerk must use ruthenian letters and ruthenian words in all pages, letters and requests, and not any other language or words...Nonetheless, Mikalojus Daukša, writing in Polish, noted in his Postilla (1599) that many people, especially szlachta, preferred to speak Polish rather than Lithuanian, but spoke Polish poorly.[citation needed] Such were the linguistic trends in the Grand Duchy that by the political reforms of 1564–1566 parliaments local land courts, appellate courts and other State functions were recorded in Polish.[49] and Polish became increasingly spoken across all social classes.
— А писаръ земъский маеть по-руску литерами и словы рускими вси листы, выписы и позвы писати, а не иншимъ езыкомъ и словы..., The Statute of GPL 1588. Part 4, article 1[50]
Lithuanian language situation
Area of the Lithuanian language in the 16th century
At one point in the history of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the higher strata of Lithuanian society from ethnic Lithuania spoke Lithuanian, although since the later 16th century gradually began using Polish, and from Belarus – Old Belarusian. Samogitia was exclusive through state in its economical situation – it lay near ports[clarification needed] and there were fewer people under corvee, instead of that, many simple people were money payers[clarification needed]. As a result, the stratification of the society was not as sharp as in other areas. Being more similar to a simple population the local szlachta spoke Lithuanian to a bigger extent than in the areas close to the capital Vilnius, which itself had become a center of intensive linguistic Polonization of surrounding areas since the 18th century.
In Vilnius University there are preserved texts written in the Lithuanian language of the Vilnius area, lying south-eastwards from Vilnius, then called Lithuanian language, today called a dialect of Eastern Aukštaitian. The source are preserved in works of graduates from Stanislovas Rapalionis Vilnius based Lithuanian language school graduate Martynas Mažvydas and Rapalionis relative Abraomas Kulvietis.
One of the main sources of Lithuanian written and common language is the Eastern Aukštaitian dialect (Vilnius dialect), preserved by Konstantinas Sirvydas in a trilingual (Polish-Latin-Lithuanian) 17th-century dictionary, Dictionarium trium linguarum in usum studiosae juventutis, the main Lithuanian language dictionary used until the late 19th century.
Demographics
An estimate of the population in the territory of Poland and Grand Duchy of Lithuania together gives a population at 7.5 million for 1493, breaking them down by ethnicity at 3.75 million Ruthenians (ethnic Ukrainians, Belarusians), 3.25 million Poles and 0.5 million Lithuanians.[54] With the Union of Lublin, 1569, Lithuanian Grand Duchy lost large part of lands to the Polish Crown.
In the mid and late 17th century, due to Russian and Swedish invasions, there was much devastation and population loss on throughout the Grand Duchy of Lithuania,[55] including ethnic Lithuanian population in Vilnius surroundings. Besides devastation, Ruthenian population declined proportionally after the territorial losses to Russian Empire. By 1770 there were about 4.84 million inhabitants in the territory of 320 thousand km2, the biggest part of whom were inhabitants of Ruthenia and about 1.39 million or 29% – of ethnic Lithuania.[51] During the following decades, the population decreased in a result of partitions.[51]
Legacy
Prussian tribes (of Baltic origin) were attacking Masovia, so Duke Konrad of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to settle near the Prussian area of settlement. The fighting between Prussians and the Teutonic Knights gave the more distant Lithuanian tribes time to unite. Because of strong enemies in the south and north, the newly formed Lithuanian state concentrated most of its military and diplomatic efforts on expansion eastward.The rest of the former Ruthenian lands (Belarusian principalities) joined the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Some other lands in Ukraine were vassalized by Lithuania later. The subjugation of Eastern Slavs by two powers created substantial differences between them that persist to this day. While there were certainly substantial regional differences in Kievan Rus', it was the Lithuanian annexation of much of southern and western Ruthenia that led to the permanent division between Ukrainians, Belarusians, and Russians.
Notwithstanding the above, Lithuania was a kingdom under Mindaugas, who was crowned by authority of Pope Innocent IV in 1253. Gediminas and Vytautas the Great also assumed the title of King, although uncrowned. A failed attempt was made in 1918 to revive the Kingdom under a German Prince, Wilhelm Karl, Duke of Urach, who would have reigned as Mindaugas II of Lithuania.
In the first half of the 20th century, the memory of the multiethnic history of the Grand Duchy was revived by the Krajowcy movement,[56][57] which included Ludwik Abramowicz (Liudvikas Abramovičius), Konstancja Skirmuntt, Mykolas Römeris (Michał Pius Römer), Józef Albin Herbaczewski (Juozapas Albinas Herbačiauskas), Józef Mackiewicz and Stanisław Mackiewicz.[58][59] This feeling was expressed in poetry by Czesław Miłosz[59]
Gallery
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Ruins of Navahrudak Castle. Current state (2004)
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Vilnius University and the Church of St. John
See also
- Belarus
- Cities of Grand Duchy of Lithuania
- Crimea
- Duchy of Lithuania
- History of Lithuania
- List of Belarusian rulers
- List of Lithuanian rulers
- Lithuania
- Lithuania proper
- Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth
- Ukraine
References
Within the [Lithuanian] grand duchy the Ruthenian (Ukrainian and Belarusian) lands initially retained considerable autonomy. The pagan Lithuanians themselves were increasingly converting to Orthodoxy and assimilating into Ruthenian culture. The grand duchy's administrative practices and legal system drew heavily on Slavic customs, and an official Ruthenian state language (also known as Rusyn) developed over time from the language used in Rus. Direct Polish rule in Ukraine in the 1340s and for two centuries thereafter was limited to Galicia. There, changes in such areas as administration, law, and land tenure proceeded more rapidly than in Ukrainian territories under Lithuania. However, Lithuania itself was soon drawn into the orbit of Poland following the dynastic linkage of the two states in 1385/86 and the baptism of the Lithuanians into the Latin (Roman Catholic) church.
Formally, Poland and Lithuania were to be distinct, equal components of the federation,[...] But Poland, which retained possession of the Lithuanian lands it had seized, had greater representation in the Diet and became the dominant partner.
While Poland and Lithuania would thereafter elect a joint sovereign and have a common parliament, the basic dual state structure was retained. Each continued to be administered separately and had its own law codes and armed forces. The joint commonwealth, however, provided an impetus for cultural Polonization of the Lithuanian nobility. By the end of the 17th century it had virtually become indistinguishable from its Polish counterpart.
...he wrote to the Grand Duke of Lithuania, admonishing him to do everything in his power to persuade his consort to 'abjure the Russian religion, and accept the Christian Faith.'
- Diena, Kauno; Vaida Milkova (5 May 2011). "Miłosz's Anniversary in the Context of Dumb Politics". Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania. Retrieved 12 August 2016.
Sources
- S. C. Rowell. Chartularium Lithuaniae res gestas magni ducis Gedeminne illustrans. Gedimino laiškai. Vilnius, 2003.
- Norman Davies. God's Playground. Columbia University Press; 2nd edition (2002), ISBN 0-231-12817-7.
- Вялікае княства Літоўскае: Энцыклапедыя. – Мінск: БелЭн, 2005—2010. – Т. 1—3.
- Гісторыя Беларусі: Падруч. у 2 ч. / Я.К. Новік, Г.С. Марцуль, І.Л. Качалаў і інш.; Пад рэд. Я.К. Новіка, Г.С. Марцуля. – Мінск : Выш. шк., 2003. – Ч. 1. Ад старажытных часоў – па люты 1917 г. – 416 с.
- Гісторыя Беларусі: у 6 т. / Ю. Бохан [і інш.]; рэдкал: М. Касцюк (гал. рэд.) [і інш.]. – Мінск : Экаперспектыва, 2000—2012. – Т. 2. Беларусь у перыяд Вялікага Княства Літоўскага. – Мінск : Экаперспектыва, 2008. – 688 с.
- Краўцэвіч, А.К. Стварэнне Вялікага Княства Літоўскага / А.К. Краўцэвіч. – Rzeszów, 2000. – 238 с. ISBN 985-08-0249-9
- Насевiч, В.Л. Пачаткі Вялікага княства Літоўскага: Падзеі і асобы. – Мінск : Полымя, 1993. – 160 с.
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